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2021. Liu P., Shi Y., Wu X., Wang H., Huang H., Guo X., Gao S. Review of the artificially-accelerated aging technology and ecological risk of microplastics. More emphasis should be put on the access to inputs and the development of capacity in the production of melt-blown polypropylene non-wovens. J.C.P. The face mask value chain is illustrated in Figure1. Primarily made to protect healthcare workers from preventing occupational hazards, the use of disposable masks also became a preferential option for non-medical professionals based on their higher filtration capacity over reusable alternatives (Prata et al., 2021). Polyester (63150 um) obtained from fabric. EU licenses are limited to humanitarian purposes and foreign operations of EU governments. The impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on marine litter pollution along the Kenyan coast: a synthesis after 100 days following the first reported case in Kenya. Disposable masks, Microplastics, Animal health, Ecotoxicity, Physiology. Based on the number of companies in different countries that were able to convert their production lines, it seems that the assembly stage is less of a bottleneck. Marine debris ingestion by Magellanic penguins. First, one of the layers passes through high-temperature and pressure calender rollers to become stiffer and form the desired shape. Ingestion of plastic microfibers by the crab. About one-third of tested people are positive, thus suggesting a population of at least 6million suspected cases. The prevalence and source of plastic incorporated into nests of five seabird species on a small offshore island. In Saigon river, Vietnam, synthetic microfibres concentration achieved up to 519,000 items/m3 (Lahens et al., 2018). Microplastics and copper effects on the neotropical teleost. Thus, certification of such masks should be complemented with tests addressing their environmental performance. However, at the end of February, there were reports that single masks were being sold for USD20. and A.L.P.S. Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod. Luksamijarulkul P., Aiempradit N., Vatanasomboon P. Microbial contamination on used surgical masks among hospital personnel and microbial air quality in their working wards: a hospital in Bangkok. In France, Austria, Germany, and some U.S. states, the use of disposable masks in public places were even imposed by national or local governments (Prata et al., 2021; CDC, 2021). A.L.P.S. Frias J.P.G.L., Nash R. Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definitions. To the research project comPET (PTDC/CTA-AMB/30361/ 2017), funded by FEDER, through COMPETE 2020 - Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalizao (POCI), and by national funds (OE), through FCT/MCTES. Authors also observed similar morphological and chemical degradation signature in surgical masks collected on Italian beaches (via SEM and micro-FTIR analysis), highlighting that similar processes could be happening in the natural marine environment (Saliu et al., 2021). Both surgical masks and N95 respirators are disposable, explaining the high and recurrent demand. Parking lots and hospitals (1.601.33 10. Masks are therefore effective only for a few hours (four hours for surgical masks and one day for N95 respirators) and there is a risk of contamination when manipulating them or re-using them. Accessibility The site is secure. Watts A.J., Urbina M.A., Corr S., Lewis C., Galloway T.S. A biomonitoring study carried out in Songkhla Lake, Thailand, during the COVID-19 on fish (Arius maculatus) and shrimps (Parapenaeopsis hardwickii and Metapenaeus brevicornis) reported a higher occurrence of microplastics (particularly PE and polyester fibres, with high numbers on black or blue colour) in the gut of the organisms, along with trace metals (cadmium, lead, arsenic) (Pradit et al., 2021). Robust supply chains require transparency, agility and reactivity. These latter operations are relatively basic and most textile companies can perform them, including with workers manually operating sewing machines for ear loops, for example. An alternative, more effective and cost-efficient solution may involve a combination of the development of strategic stocks, upstream agreements with companies for rapid conversion of assembly lines during crises and international trade. Rasmussen G. CBC News; 2020. In addition to chemicals in plastics, microplastics can interact with environmental contaminants. Aguilera M., Medina-Surez M., Pins J., Liria-Loza A., Benejam L. Marine debris as a barrier_ assessing the impacts on sea turtle hatchlings on their way to the ocean. However, while some entrepreneurs are investing in creating new capacity for the future, most supply increases during the crisis have come through conversion of existing production lines. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies No Shortage of Masks at the Beach - OCEANS ASIA [WWW Document]. Rakib M.R.J., De-la-Torre G.E., Pizarro-Ortega C.I., Dioses-Salinas D.C., Al-Nahian S. Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Coxs Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world. For example, the combined effect of microplastics and copper (a metal that can leach out from face masks (Sullivan et al., 2021) promoted genotoxicity, neurotoxicity and physiological effects on the neotropical teleost Prochilodus lineatus, with greater effects (for some endpoints) that each contaminant alone (Roda et al., 2020). Third, export restrictions push prices up and foster illegal activities (black markets and scams). 1578 face masks and 804 gloves were found over a cumulative area of 43,577 m, S4, S5, S7 (most populated beaches) were the most polluted sites, PE and PP (2070 20 um) obtained from a 3 y old rope, PET (621400 31528 um) obtained from a PET fabric, PP (35 mm 0.2 mm) obtained from ropes, 5 items included in 1.5 g of squid; 8 months, Compromised feeding rate, body mass, and metabolic rate, Polyester (100400 um) obtained from clothing. Manufacturers of machinery for mask assembly lines found, for example, in The Peoples Republic of China (hereafter China), Chinese Taipei, France, Germany, Turkey, and the United States have seen an increase in demand, as have manufacturers of testing machines (testing is important to guarantee the safety of masks). Thus, despite later regurgitation, frequent ingestion of plastic wastes in landfills by overwintering seagulls has been associated with death and a significant decrease in their reproduction due to chemical body-burdens (Seif et al., 2018). Over 200 species, including marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds, are reported to have been entangled or ingested plastic litter (Khn et al., 2015). As masks can easily be stored over a long period (at least ten years), strategic stocks allow countries to manufacture or import a large quantity of masks over time and then be ready to meet a very high demand during crises. The entrapment of organisms in plastic litter has been frequently documented. Emandian M.S., Onay T.T., Bemirel B. Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments. Disruptions in transport and logistics have made the delivery of masks to final customers more complicated. Okuku E., Kiteresi L., Owato G., Otieno K., Mwalugha C., Mbuche M., Gwada B., Nelson A., Chepkemboi P., Achieng Q., Wanjeri V., Ndwiga J., Mulupi L., Omire J. ,k&@$&0yL`p "I@lSs^7Q$w z Plastic and non-plastic debris ingestion in three gull species feeding in an urban landfill environment. Malafaia G., Nascimento .F., Estrela F.N., Guimares A.T.B., Ribeiro F., da Luz T.M., de Lima Rodrigues A.S. Green toxicology approach involving polylactic acid biomicroplastics and neotropical tadpoles: (eco)toxicological safety or environmental hazard? Saliu F., Veronelli M., Raguso C., Barana D., Galli P., Lasagni M. The release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment. Qiao R., Deng Y., Zhang S., Wolosker M.B., Zhu Q., Ren H., Zhang Y. Accumulation of different shapes of microplastics initiates intestinal injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis in the gut of zebrafish. Welden N.A., Cowie P.R. Brandon-Jones, Squire, Autry and Petersen (2014), A Contingent Resource-Based Perspective of Supply Chain Resilience and Robustness, Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Au S.Y., Bruce T.F., Bridges W.C., Klaine S.J. Jemec A., Horvat P., Kunej U., Bele M., Kran A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean. Export bans are harmful for countries without production capacity, but can also backfire on the country imposing them when they need to import inputs, additional masks or other essential goods. In South Korea, for instance, 91% of mask-wearing citizens opt by own-will for disposable masks (e.g., N95, KF masks, surgical masks) (Won So, 2020); but the preference for disposable masks (surgical masks, 40%) also prevails in other countries such Australia, U.S., U.K. Singapore, Sri Lanka and India (Selvaranjan et al., 2021). Sullivan et al. In addition, action is urgently needed to promote the correct reuse (after disinfection), disposal and/or treatment (recycling) of plastics, including masks. Chinese Taipei was the first economy to ban exports of masks on 24January 2020; many others have subsequently introduced export bans (Table1). Fernndez-Arribas J., Moreno T., Bartrol R., Eljarrat E. COVID-19 face masks: a new source of human and environmental exposure to organophosphate esters. aCentre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal, bCentre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal, cMer Molcules Sante (MMS), Universit Catholique de l'Ouest, 3 place Andr Leroy, BP10808, 49008 Angers CEDEX 01, France, dCatalan Institute for Water research (ICRA-CERCA), H2O Building, Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, Emili Grahit 101,17003 Girona, Spain, eWater and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Chua M.H., Cheng W., Goh S.S., Kong J., Li B., Lim J.Y.C., Mao L., Wang S., Xue K., Yang L., Ye E., Zhang K., Cheong W.C.D., Tan B.H., Li Z., Tan B.H., Loh X.J. While some countries could develop some kind of self-sufficiency, it is not clear that this situation would improve the supply of masks in another crisis, due to scale of the surge in demand. This poses an extra cost, but one offset by higher prices for the masks. Delhi: As Masks, PPE Kits Head to Landfills, You Can't Shrug Off Share of Blame. To fully understand the scope of the abundance, source, drivers, and impact of such plastic litter in order to improve current legislation and legal frameworks, it is crucial to: i) increase research on this topic by increasing long-term monitoring programs, including aerial surveys and citizens science initiatives (for collection and reporting); and ii) assess the ecotoxicological impacts on different biota, considering environmental levels found for microplastics (including cocktails of hazardous contaminants that might be present in single-use masks). This note also covers N95 respirators as they have a similar value chain and trade data do not distinguish them from surgical masks. 'Bj" @_p iF1L*E@;tFX!>%s %2,dX_G .xHK "8KXO1lad`*zu'0it2{20ba^ x1"4c#Pq 5H10;ifi! A stable trade and investment environment offers them the visibility needed to manage risks. While N95 respirators are designed to protect the wearer from infections, surgical masks are mostly used to prevent the wearer from disseminating germs and viruses (such as in the case of a surgeon operating on a patient). The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper. Lahens L., Strady E., Kieu-Le T.-C., Dris R., Boukerma K., Rinnert E., Gasperi J., Tassin B. Macroplastic and microplastic contamination assessment of a tropical river (Saigon River, Vietnam) transversed by a developing megacity. about navigating our updated article layout. In terms of inputs, oil and metal are the main raw materials for the manufacture of non-woven materials, metal strips and ear loops (and sometimes other textile materials such as cotton). 1 For example, the white storks (Ciconia ciconia) have been reported to feed on landfill wastes, which comprises 68.8% of the diet of these animals in Spain (Avila, Salamanca, Zamora) (Peris, 2003). A multi-pronged approach is needed to mitigate risks. Horn D.A., Granek E.F., Steele C.L. ALtered burrowing and feeding behaviour, molecular genetic biomarkers. Mombasa presented a higher number of masks in the streets; Kwale beaches presented more items than Kilifi. (2021) provided the first evidence on microfibers and micro and nanoplastics released from disposable face masks. In France, the government requisitioned masks produced by the Swedish firm Mlnlycke and destined for other EU markets. Wang et al. Certification procedures should be expedited to allow masks produced by new companies to be traded as soon as possible. [. Future research must address the fragmentation of face masks, as well as the release of a cocktail of contaminants, including their toxicological effects complemented by biomonitoring studies. Such face masks mostly rely on three layers: an inner layer composed of soft fibres; a middle layer consisting of a melt-blown filter; and an outer layer consisting of nonwoven fibres that confirms water-resisting properties (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). Evaluation of single and combined effects of cadmium and micro-plastic particles on biochemical and immunological parameters of common carp (, Blarer P., Burkhardt-Holm P. Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod. Among bio-based solutions, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and poly(lactic)acid (PLA) obtained from microorganisms (including microalgae) have raised scientific attention, as they can be biodegradable (i.e., able to mineralise into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass in the presence of biological activity). COVID-19 has elevated our dependency on plastic products, such as face masks, to ensure safety against infection. Similarly, species that feed on landfills may be particularly exposed to disposable masks disposed of by the public, as these are disposed of as municipal solid wastes. The .gov means its official. As the shortage diminishes, the objective should be to restore a more co-operative and open trade environment where export bans are lifted and the face mask global value chain can fully deliver to all in need, particularly in countries where the epidemic is expanding. The new PMC design is here! : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. hb``` cc`a $3FfG'uFP3|[+34,YDmpeKrE3j4$xO"i*,M%(pZ#@HyG\9'*YMN4R@kATL~E%}y? National Library of Medicine Meeting demand for face masks has become one of the main issues for governments fighting the pandemic. Akhbarizadeh R., Dobaradaran S., Nabipour I., Tangestani M., Abedi D., Javanfekr F., Jeddi F., Zendehboodi A. In China, there was no regulation prohibiting exports but a form of compulsory purchase, with all orders in January and February going to the government and exports resuming in March. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Microplastic fibers an underestimated threat to aquatic organisms? The fast spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus via respiratory droplets and the resulting coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a significant increase in the demand for disposable face masks globally (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). PET (< 5 mm) obtained from pink PET fleece, Adult mortality and adverse embryonic development, Nylon and PET (10 4 m; 23 100 m; 17 60 m; 23 70 m) purchased from Goodfellow, Compromised feeding activity, alteration in sinking rates, Nylon, polyester and PP (501000 30 um) obtained from fluorescent ropes. It would also be unrealistic for smaller or poorer economies to become self-sufficient in the whole array of protective equipment needed. Parking lots and hospitals had higher numbers of face masks. Coppock R.L., Galloway T.S., Cole M., Fileman E.S., Queirs A.M., Lindeque P.K. Covid-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. This mask was present in the penguin's stomach, which may have restricted the organisms feeding activity and resulted in starvation. Looking ahead, it would be excessively costly for each country to develop production capacity matching the demand observed during the crisis and encompassing the whole value chain. Polyester-derived microfibre impacts on the soil-dwelling earth- worm. For instance, a novel plant-based ionizer proved efficiency in eliminating COVID-19 droplets (Suwardi et al., 2021). Chemicals adsorbed to microplastics may leach into body tissues after ingestion/contact, resulting in induced changes or bioaccumulation (Issac and Kandasubramanian, 2021). The government can co-ordinate such efforts and provide subsidies or financial incentives for private companies to participate in a contingency programme. Post COVID-19 pandemic_ biofragmentation and soil ecotoxicological effects of microplastics derived from face masks. Global trends and status in landfilling research: a systematic analysis. According to Nielsen Retail, the price of face masks increased by 319% in the United States between end-January and end-February 2020. Masks are then sterilised before going to testing and packaging. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted There are no official statistics sufficiently disaggregated to provide information on the output of masks. The few monitoring studies on PPE in the environment (summarized in Table 1) evaluated the weathered/deterioration levels of these items (FTIR, SEM), which suggests the release of plastic fibres and microplastics. Besides, thousands of disposable masks are ending up on landfills or open dumps along with mixed wastes daily (as it is occurring in developing countries such as India and Indonesia; Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020), and if not properly contained and due to their lightweight, such items can easily leak to the environment. Thus, along with the release of microplastics, it is also expected that disposable face masks would slowly contribute to the release of potentially hazardous chemicals (Prata et al., 2020). Potential effects of disposable facemasks in aquatic and terrestrial organisms. The estimate of 240million masks needed each day in China is therefore already conservative. For instance, hermit crabs Coenobita perlatus are known to get entrapped in marine plastic litter (e.g., inside bottles) (Lavers et al., 2020). Adding in care givers and suspected COVID-19 patients further increases this demand, possibly by another 12million per day.17. It also outlines potential remediation strategies to mitigate the environmental challenge impose by COVID-19-related litter. Prata J.C., Silva A., Duarte A.C., Rocha-Santos T.A.P. Disposable masks have been found in urban areas, with densities of approximately 0.001 items m2 in Canada (Ammendolia et al., 2021) and Peru (De-la-Torre et al., 2021), and <0.3 item m2 in Kenya (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1 of lower grade) for the general population. Import tariffs on face masks have been temporarily eliminated in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, ElSalvador, the European Union, India, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, the Philippines, South Africa, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, VietNam, and the United Kingdom.19 It should be noted that in this list Colombia, Ecuador, Malaysia, and Ukraine have both banned exports and removed barriers on imports, which seems logical in order to maximise the availability of masks within the country, but raises the question of what happens if all countries do the same. PP (20100 20 um) obtained from containers. It is a cost-efficient strategy, as through global production and trade, costs can remain low and masks do not need to be bought in the middle of the crisis when prices soar. But a full production line performing all the operations and combining several machines is more efficient. %%EOF Robust supply chains can ensure that masks can be produced during a crisis by maintaining operations. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that some plastic waste is ingested along with food waste, affecting survival, feeding, health status, and fitness. Synergistic effects were also observed for cadmium combined with microplastics in the common carp Cyprinus carpio, with greater effects on biochemical and immunological parameters than individual stressors (Banaee et al., 2019). Those COVID-19 Masks, Gloves, and Wipes Were All Using are Polluting Land and Sea. Chowdhury H., Chowdhury T., Sait S.M. But free trade and trade facilitation are not enough to solve the current shortage; an important increase in supply is required in the short-term, requiring government planning and incentives for firms to convert existing assembly lines and create additional capacity. : visualisation, writing - original draft, writing - review and editing. Conversely, synergistic effects call for urgent mitigation measures, particularly when they occur at low intensities of each stressor (i.e., above the legal levels). Disposable masks release microplastics to the aqueous environment with exacerbation by natural weathering. Tavares D.C., da Costa L.L., Rangel D.F., de Moura J.F., Zalmon I.R., Siciliano S. Nests of the brown booby (. To this share can add up face masks leaked from landfill facilities due to their lightweight, particularly in developing countries where such an end-of-life option is preferable for treating municipal solid wastes from COVID-19 (Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020). Ingestion/egestion observed, reproduction and growth decreased by 48% and 92%, respectively, no biochemical and behavioural alterations, Biochemical alterations (esterase activity dropped 62%; spermatogenesis declined to 0.8). Gut microbiota dysbiosis. Indeed, adverse effects of microplastics are often related to the formation of reactive oxygen species and consequent oxidative stress as the major molecular initiating event (Jeong et al., 2017). : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. Surgical masks provide different levels of protection based on the effectiveness of the filtering. Plastic pollution is one of the greatest environmental challenges, with known adverse ecological, economic and human health effects (De-la-Torre et al., 2021). 8600 Rockville Pike There is a need to find the right balance between protecting domestic firms from opportunistic acquisition during the crisis and avoiding barriers that will jeopardize future investment in the recovery phase. 50(3), pp. 16. Rodrigues J.P., Duarte A.C., Santos-Echeanda J., Rocha-Santos T. Significance of interactions between microplastics and POPs in the marine environment: a critical overview. Microplastic fiber up- take, ingestion, and egestion rates in the blue mussel (. However, intense use and mismanagement of COVID-19 waste are imposing a severe environmental challenge. Mortality of a juvenile Magellanic penguin ( Spheniscus magellanicus , Spheniscidae ) associated with the ingestion of a PFF-2 protective mask during the Covid-19 pandemic. Prata J.C., Silva A., Walker T.R., Duarte A.C., Rocha-Santos T.A.P. Re-usable masks may still be one of the solutions to address the current shortage. Since no country can meet the increase in the demand for masks alone, trade is essential. The ingestion of microfibres (although at concentrations relatively higher than the ones encountered in the field) is often related to behavioural alterations (e.g., burrowing activity of the annelids; or sink activity of crustaceans), decreased feeding activity (as observed in bivalves and crabs), reduced growth/body mass (particularly in crustaceans), increased deformities/damages (as in fish), reduced reproductive output and embryonic development (as for crabs), induced inflammatory processes (in anemone), oxidative stress (in annelids and shredders) (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020) (Table 1). Das O., Neisiany R.E., Capezza A.J., Hedenqvist M.S., Frsth M., Xu Q., Jiang L., Ji D., Ramakrishna S. The need for fully bio-based facemasks to counter coronavirus outbreaks: a perspective. While some EU countries producing masks have enacted export bans, an EU-wide regulation was adopted on 15March 2020 introducing export authorisations. Terrestrial organisms also proved to ingest microfibres, such as the soil-dwelling (detritivore), annelids (Lumbricus terrestris) and the shredder snails (Achatina fulica) (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020) (Table 2 Most of the potential new manufacturers are currently held back by the shortage in PP non-woven fabric.10. The number of disposable face masks in rivers and beaches seems considerably higher than in any other place, acting as highways and sinks, respectively. The smooth operation of transportation infrastructure and logistics, especially air cargo, is critical to support the face masks value chain during the crisis. The presence of such items in bird nests can later result in the entanglement or ingesting by the chicks (or the parents), compromising nutritional requirements and development (Tavares et al., 2016). Recent publications reported the abundance of COVID-19-related litter in several environments, wildlife interaction with such items, and the contaminants that can be released from such protective equipment that has the potential to induce ecotoxicological effects. Yet a crisis may be long and stocks insufficient, so contingency plans and strategies to increase supply during crises will still be necessary. But some countries do not have the manufacturing capacity, the specialised machines nor, more importantly, access to inputs. For instance, Bisphenol A, used in polycarbonate plastics (i.e., polypropylene, polyethylene) as a stabiliser and antioxidant, can leach from plastics and induce toxicity under low concentrations as an endocrine disruptor (i.e., by mimicking hormones) (Nam et al., 2010). covering pre-existing commercial relationships). Incorrect disposal of disposable face masks has been reported worldwide, in urbanised areas (streets, gardens, parks), natural reserves, beaches, and even high mountains (e.g., Ammendolia et al., 2021; Neto et al., 2021; Prata et al., 2020); intensifying plastic pollution. Some countries have facilitated trade in masks and other protective equipment by removing tariffs or by suspending licensing and certification requirements. Feeding in urban refuse dumps: ingestion of plastic objects by the white stork (. Looking ahead, it would be excessively costly for every country to develop production capacity that matches crisis demand and encompasses the whole value chain. ). The minimum is three layers: an inner layer in contact with the mouth that can absorb moisture (generally white), a filter layer made of melt-blown electret non-woven material (as described above) and an outer layer protecting against liquid splashes (blue, to be distinguished from the inner layer). pp. China may have imported up to 2 billion masks during the COVID-19 crisis. The main producer of masks in France, Kolmi-Hopen, is also an affiliate of Medicom (Canada). Research 2021 AB -, 2173642. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. In Kenya, beaches presented 10 times more disposable masks than in the streets (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1). Assuming that only around one third of healthcare workers need a mask (accounting for the fact that not all countries are affected at the same time, and not all health workers are in contact with COVID-19 patients), and that each health worker uses on average two masks per day, global demand for surgical masks would be around 28million per day. Recreational beaches presented the highest number of items (73%), followed by surfing (24.6%), fishing and inaccessible beaches (< 1%). : visualisation, writing - original draft, writing - review and editing. The export authorisation was first for all personal protective equipment and narrowed down to protective masks on 14April 2020 (https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index.cfm?id=2132). It analyses the causes of the current shortage of these key medical supplies needed to prevent the spread of coronavirus, and reviews some short-term and long-term policy options, with a focus on the role of trade and investment policy. Nose strips are added in order to bend the mask around the nose bridge, made from metal (aluminium, galvanised iron or steel). Polypropylene (PP) is one of the most commonly produced plastics in the world and, as a polymer derived from oil, can be easily supplied (although dependent on oil prices and access to oil). 1306 items, 31% representing face masks. Interactions with COVID-19 litter, particularly masks (and, to a lesser extent, latex gloves and disposable wipes), have been reported by academics, ordinary citizens, and wildlife stakeholders, for several aquatic and terrestrial species (Hiemstra et al., 2021). Export restrictions can also create uncertainty that impacts firms investment strategies. While the most efficient level 2 surgical masks can be reserved for healthcare workers (with N95 respirators for the most exposed of them), lower grades of masks could be used in other sectors or re-usable washable masks (as already recommended by some governments and health authorities). Wang Z., An C., Chen X., Lee K., Zhang B., Feng Q.

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2021. Liu P., Shi Y., Wu X., Wang H., Huang H., Guo X., Gao S. Review of the artificially-accelerated aging technology and ecological risk of microplastics. More emphasis should be put on the access to inputs and the development of capacity in the production of melt-blown polypropylene non-wovens. J.C.P. The face mask value chain is illustrated in Figure1. Primarily made to protect healthcare workers from preventing occupational hazards, the use of disposable masks also became a preferential option for non-medical professionals based on their higher filtration capacity over reusable alternatives (Prata et al., 2021). Polyester (63150 um) obtained from fabric. EU licenses are limited to humanitarian purposes and foreign operations of EU governments. The impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on marine litter pollution along the Kenyan coast: a synthesis after 100 days following the first reported case in Kenya. Disposable masks, Microplastics, Animal health, Ecotoxicity, Physiology. Based on the number of companies in different countries that were able to convert their production lines, it seems that the assembly stage is less of a bottleneck. Marine debris ingestion by Magellanic penguins. First, one of the layers passes through high-temperature and pressure calender rollers to become stiffer and form the desired shape. Ingestion of plastic microfibers by the crab. About one-third of tested people are positive, thus suggesting a population of at least 6million suspected cases. The prevalence and source of plastic incorporated into nests of five seabird species on a small offshore island. In Saigon river, Vietnam, synthetic microfibres concentration achieved up to 519,000 items/m3 (Lahens et al., 2018). Microplastics and copper effects on the neotropical teleost. Thus, certification of such masks should be complemented with tests addressing their environmental performance. However, at the end of February, there were reports that single masks were being sold for USD20. and A.L.P.S. Microplastics alter feeding selectivity and faecal density in the copepod. Luksamijarulkul P., Aiempradit N., Vatanasomboon P. Microbial contamination on used surgical masks among hospital personnel and microbial air quality in their working wards: a hospital in Bangkok. In France, Austria, Germany, and some U.S. states, the use of disposable masks in public places were even imposed by national or local governments (Prata et al., 2021; CDC, 2021). A.L.P.S. Frias J.P.G.L., Nash R. Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definitions. To the research project comPET (PTDC/CTA-AMB/30361/ 2017), funded by FEDER, through COMPETE 2020 - Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalizao (POCI), and by national funds (OE), through FCT/MCTES. Authors also observed similar morphological and chemical degradation signature in surgical masks collected on Italian beaches (via SEM and micro-FTIR analysis), highlighting that similar processes could be happening in the natural marine environment (Saliu et al., 2021). Both surgical masks and N95 respirators are disposable, explaining the high and recurrent demand. Parking lots and hospitals (1.601.33 10. Masks are therefore effective only for a few hours (four hours for surgical masks and one day for N95 respirators) and there is a risk of contamination when manipulating them or re-using them. Accessibility The site is secure. Watts A.J., Urbina M.A., Corr S., Lewis C., Galloway T.S. A biomonitoring study carried out in Songkhla Lake, Thailand, during the COVID-19 on fish (Arius maculatus) and shrimps (Parapenaeopsis hardwickii and Metapenaeus brevicornis) reported a higher occurrence of microplastics (particularly PE and polyester fibres, with high numbers on black or blue colour) in the gut of the organisms, along with trace metals (cadmium, lead, arsenic) (Pradit et al., 2021). Robust supply chains require transparency, agility and reactivity. These latter operations are relatively basic and most textile companies can perform them, including with workers manually operating sewing machines for ear loops, for example. An alternative, more effective and cost-efficient solution may involve a combination of the development of strategic stocks, upstream agreements with companies for rapid conversion of assembly lines during crises and international trade. Rasmussen G. CBC News; 2020. In addition to chemicals in plastics, microplastics can interact with environmental contaminants. Aguilera M., Medina-Surez M., Pins J., Liria-Loza A., Benejam L. Marine debris as a barrier_ assessing the impacts on sea turtle hatchlings on their way to the ocean. However, while some entrepreneurs are investing in creating new capacity for the future, most supply increases during the crisis have come through conversion of existing production lines. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies No Shortage of Masks at the Beach - OCEANS ASIA [WWW Document]. Rakib M.R.J., De-la-Torre G.E., Pizarro-Ortega C.I., Dioses-Salinas D.C., Al-Nahian S. Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Coxs Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world. For example, the combined effect of microplastics and copper (a metal that can leach out from face masks (Sullivan et al., 2021) promoted genotoxicity, neurotoxicity and physiological effects on the neotropical teleost Prochilodus lineatus, with greater effects (for some endpoints) that each contaminant alone (Roda et al., 2020). Third, export restrictions push prices up and foster illegal activities (black markets and scams). 1578 face masks and 804 gloves were found over a cumulative area of 43,577 m, S4, S5, S7 (most populated beaches) were the most polluted sites, PE and PP (2070 20 um) obtained from a 3 y old rope, PET (621400 31528 um) obtained from a PET fabric, PP (35 mm 0.2 mm) obtained from ropes, 5 items included in 1.5 g of squid; 8 months, Compromised feeding rate, body mass, and metabolic rate, Polyester (100400 um) obtained from clothing. Manufacturers of machinery for mask assembly lines found, for example, in The Peoples Republic of China (hereafter China), Chinese Taipei, France, Germany, Turkey, and the United States have seen an increase in demand, as have manufacturers of testing machines (testing is important to guarantee the safety of masks). Thus, despite later regurgitation, frequent ingestion of plastic wastes in landfills by overwintering seagulls has been associated with death and a significant decrease in their reproduction due to chemical body-burdens (Seif et al., 2018). Over 200 species, including marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds, are reported to have been entangled or ingested plastic litter (Khn et al., 2015). As masks can easily be stored over a long period (at least ten years), strategic stocks allow countries to manufacture or import a large quantity of masks over time and then be ready to meet a very high demand during crises. The entrapment of organisms in plastic litter has been frequently documented. Emandian M.S., Onay T.T., Bemirel B. Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments. Disruptions in transport and logistics have made the delivery of masks to final customers more complicated. Okuku E., Kiteresi L., Owato G., Otieno K., Mwalugha C., Mbuche M., Gwada B., Nelson A., Chepkemboi P., Achieng Q., Wanjeri V., Ndwiga J., Mulupi L., Omire J. ,k&@$&0yL`p "I@lSs^7Q$w z Plastic and non-plastic debris ingestion in three gull species feeding in an urban landfill environment. Malafaia G., Nascimento .F., Estrela F.N., Guimares A.T.B., Ribeiro F., da Luz T.M., de Lima Rodrigues A.S. Green toxicology approach involving polylactic acid biomicroplastics and neotropical tadpoles: (eco)toxicological safety or environmental hazard? Saliu F., Veronelli M., Raguso C., Barana D., Galli P., Lasagni M. The release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment. Qiao R., Deng Y., Zhang S., Wolosker M.B., Zhu Q., Ren H., Zhang Y. Accumulation of different shapes of microplastics initiates intestinal injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis in the gut of zebrafish. Welden N.A., Cowie P.R. Brandon-Jones, Squire, Autry and Petersen (2014), A Contingent Resource-Based Perspective of Supply Chain Resilience and Robustness, Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Au S.Y., Bruce T.F., Bridges W.C., Klaine S.J. Jemec A., Horvat P., Kunej U., Bele M., Kran A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean. Export bans are harmful for countries without production capacity, but can also backfire on the country imposing them when they need to import inputs, additional masks or other essential goods. In South Korea, for instance, 91% of mask-wearing citizens opt by own-will for disposable masks (e.g., N95, KF masks, surgical masks) (Won So, 2020); but the preference for disposable masks (surgical masks, 40%) also prevails in other countries such Australia, U.S., U.K. Singapore, Sri Lanka and India (Selvaranjan et al., 2021). Sullivan et al. In addition, action is urgently needed to promote the correct reuse (after disinfection), disposal and/or treatment (recycling) of plastics, including masks. Chinese Taipei was the first economy to ban exports of masks on 24January 2020; many others have subsequently introduced export bans (Table1). Fernndez-Arribas J., Moreno T., Bartrol R., Eljarrat E. COVID-19 face masks: a new source of human and environmental exposure to organophosphate esters. aCentre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal, bCentre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal, cMer Molcules Sante (MMS), Universit Catholique de l'Ouest, 3 place Andr Leroy, BP10808, 49008 Angers CEDEX 01, France, dCatalan Institute for Water research (ICRA-CERCA), H2O Building, Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, Emili Grahit 101,17003 Girona, Spain, eWater and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Chua M.H., Cheng W., Goh S.S., Kong J., Li B., Lim J.Y.C., Mao L., Wang S., Xue K., Yang L., Ye E., Zhang K., Cheong W.C.D., Tan B.H., Li Z., Tan B.H., Loh X.J. While some countries could develop some kind of self-sufficiency, it is not clear that this situation would improve the supply of masks in another crisis, due to scale of the surge in demand. This poses an extra cost, but one offset by higher prices for the masks. Delhi: As Masks, PPE Kits Head to Landfills, You Can't Shrug Off Share of Blame. To fully understand the scope of the abundance, source, drivers, and impact of such plastic litter in order to improve current legislation and legal frameworks, it is crucial to: i) increase research on this topic by increasing long-term monitoring programs, including aerial surveys and citizens science initiatives (for collection and reporting); and ii) assess the ecotoxicological impacts on different biota, considering environmental levels found for microplastics (including cocktails of hazardous contaminants that might be present in single-use masks). This note also covers N95 respirators as they have a similar value chain and trade data do not distinguish them from surgical masks. 'Bj" @_p iF1L*E@;tFX!>%s %2,dX_G .xHK "8KXO1lad`*zu'0it2{20ba^ x1"4c#Pq 5H10;ifi! A stable trade and investment environment offers them the visibility needed to manage risks. While N95 respirators are designed to protect the wearer from infections, surgical masks are mostly used to prevent the wearer from disseminating germs and viruses (such as in the case of a surgeon operating on a patient). The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper. Lahens L., Strady E., Kieu-Le T.-C., Dris R., Boukerma K., Rinnert E., Gasperi J., Tassin B. Macroplastic and microplastic contamination assessment of a tropical river (Saigon River, Vietnam) transversed by a developing megacity. about navigating our updated article layout. In terms of inputs, oil and metal are the main raw materials for the manufacture of non-woven materials, metal strips and ear loops (and sometimes other textile materials such as cotton). 1 For example, the white storks (Ciconia ciconia) have been reported to feed on landfill wastes, which comprises 68.8% of the diet of these animals in Spain (Avila, Salamanca, Zamora) (Peris, 2003). A multi-pronged approach is needed to mitigate risks. Horn D.A., Granek E.F., Steele C.L. ALtered burrowing and feeding behaviour, molecular genetic biomarkers. Mombasa presented a higher number of masks in the streets; Kwale beaches presented more items than Kilifi. (2021) provided the first evidence on microfibers and micro and nanoplastics released from disposable face masks. In France, the government requisitioned masks produced by the Swedish firm Mlnlycke and destined for other EU markets. Wang et al. Certification procedures should be expedited to allow masks produced by new companies to be traded as soon as possible. [. Future research must address the fragmentation of face masks, as well as the release of a cocktail of contaminants, including their toxicological effects complemented by biomonitoring studies. Such face masks mostly rely on three layers: an inner layer composed of soft fibres; a middle layer consisting of a melt-blown filter; and an outer layer consisting of nonwoven fibres that confirms water-resisting properties (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). Evaluation of single and combined effects of cadmium and micro-plastic particles on biochemical and immunological parameters of common carp (, Blarer P., Burkhardt-Holm P. Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod. Among bio-based solutions, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and poly(lactic)acid (PLA) obtained from microorganisms (including microalgae) have raised scientific attention, as they can be biodegradable (i.e., able to mineralise into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass in the presence of biological activity). COVID-19 has elevated our dependency on plastic products, such as face masks, to ensure safety against infection. Similarly, species that feed on landfills may be particularly exposed to disposable masks disposed of by the public, as these are disposed of as municipal solid wastes. The .gov means its official. As the shortage diminishes, the objective should be to restore a more co-operative and open trade environment where export bans are lifted and the face mask global value chain can fully deliver to all in need, particularly in countries where the epidemic is expanding. The new PMC design is here! : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. hb``` cc`a $3FfG'uFP3|[+34,YDmpeKrE3j4$xO"i*,M%(pZ#@HyG\9'*YMN4R@kATL~E%}y? National Library of Medicine Meeting demand for face masks has become one of the main issues for governments fighting the pandemic. Akhbarizadeh R., Dobaradaran S., Nabipour I., Tangestani M., Abedi D., Javanfekr F., Jeddi F., Zendehboodi A. In China, there was no regulation prohibiting exports but a form of compulsory purchase, with all orders in January and February going to the government and exports resuming in March. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Microplastic fibers an underestimated threat to aquatic organisms? The fast spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus via respiratory droplets and the resulting coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a significant increase in the demand for disposable face masks globally (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). PET (< 5 mm) obtained from pink PET fleece, Adult mortality and adverse embryonic development, Nylon and PET (10 4 m; 23 100 m; 17 60 m; 23 70 m) purchased from Goodfellow, Compromised feeding activity, alteration in sinking rates, Nylon, polyester and PP (501000 30 um) obtained from fluorescent ropes. It would also be unrealistic for smaller or poorer economies to become self-sufficient in the whole array of protective equipment needed. Parking lots and hospitals had higher numbers of face masks. Coppock R.L., Galloway T.S., Cole M., Fileman E.S., Queirs A.M., Lindeque P.K. Covid-19 face masks: a potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment. Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. This mask was present in the penguin's stomach, which may have restricted the organisms feeding activity and resulted in starvation. Looking ahead, it would be excessively costly for each country to develop production capacity matching the demand observed during the crisis and encompassing the whole value chain. Polyester-derived microfibre impacts on the soil-dwelling earth- worm. For instance, a novel plant-based ionizer proved efficiency in eliminating COVID-19 droplets (Suwardi et al., 2021). Chemicals adsorbed to microplastics may leach into body tissues after ingestion/contact, resulting in induced changes or bioaccumulation (Issac and Kandasubramanian, 2021). The government can co-ordinate such efforts and provide subsidies or financial incentives for private companies to participate in a contingency programme. Post COVID-19 pandemic_ biofragmentation and soil ecotoxicological effects of microplastics derived from face masks. Global trends and status in landfilling research: a systematic analysis. According to Nielsen Retail, the price of face masks increased by 319% in the United States between end-January and end-February 2020. Masks are then sterilised before going to testing and packaging. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted There are no official statistics sufficiently disaggregated to provide information on the output of masks. The few monitoring studies on PPE in the environment (summarized in Table 1) evaluated the weathered/deterioration levels of these items (FTIR, SEM), which suggests the release of plastic fibres and microplastics. Besides, thousands of disposable masks are ending up on landfills or open dumps along with mixed wastes daily (as it is occurring in developing countries such as India and Indonesia; Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020), and if not properly contained and due to their lightweight, such items can easily leak to the environment. Thus, along with the release of microplastics, it is also expected that disposable face masks would slowly contribute to the release of potentially hazardous chemicals (Prata et al., 2020). Potential effects of disposable facemasks in aquatic and terrestrial organisms. The estimate of 240million masks needed each day in China is therefore already conservative. For instance, hermit crabs Coenobita perlatus are known to get entrapped in marine plastic litter (e.g., inside bottles) (Lavers et al., 2020). Adding in care givers and suspected COVID-19 patients further increases this demand, possibly by another 12million per day.17. It also outlines potential remediation strategies to mitigate the environmental challenge impose by COVID-19-related litter. Prata J.C., Silva A., Duarte A.C., Rocha-Santos T.A.P. Disposable masks have been found in urban areas, with densities of approximately 0.001 items m2 in Canada (Ammendolia et al., 2021) and Peru (De-la-Torre et al., 2021), and <0.3 item m2 in Kenya (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1 of lower grade) for the general population. Import tariffs on face masks have been temporarily eliminated in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, ElSalvador, the European Union, India, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, the Philippines, South Africa, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, VietNam, and the United Kingdom.19 It should be noted that in this list Colombia, Ecuador, Malaysia, and Ukraine have both banned exports and removed barriers on imports, which seems logical in order to maximise the availability of masks within the country, but raises the question of what happens if all countries do the same. PP (20100 20 um) obtained from containers. It is a cost-efficient strategy, as through global production and trade, costs can remain low and masks do not need to be bought in the middle of the crisis when prices soar. But a full production line performing all the operations and combining several machines is more efficient. %%EOF Robust supply chains can ensure that masks can be produced during a crisis by maintaining operations. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that some plastic waste is ingested along with food waste, affecting survival, feeding, health status, and fitness. Synergistic effects were also observed for cadmium combined with microplastics in the common carp Cyprinus carpio, with greater effects on biochemical and immunological parameters than individual stressors (Banaee et al., 2019). Those COVID-19 Masks, Gloves, and Wipes Were All Using are Polluting Land and Sea. Chowdhury H., Chowdhury T., Sait S.M. But free trade and trade facilitation are not enough to solve the current shortage; an important increase in supply is required in the short-term, requiring government planning and incentives for firms to convert existing assembly lines and create additional capacity. : visualisation, writing - original draft, writing - review and editing. Conversely, synergistic effects call for urgent mitigation measures, particularly when they occur at low intensities of each stressor (i.e., above the legal levels). Disposable masks release microplastics to the aqueous environment with exacerbation by natural weathering. Tavares D.C., da Costa L.L., Rangel D.F., de Moura J.F., Zalmon I.R., Siciliano S. Nests of the brown booby (. To this share can add up face masks leaked from landfill facilities due to their lightweight, particularly in developing countries where such an end-of-life option is preferable for treating municipal solid wastes from COVID-19 (Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020). Ingestion/egestion observed, reproduction and growth decreased by 48% and 92%, respectively, no biochemical and behavioural alterations, Biochemical alterations (esterase activity dropped 62%; spermatogenesis declined to 0.8). Gut microbiota dysbiosis. Indeed, adverse effects of microplastics are often related to the formation of reactive oxygen species and consequent oxidative stress as the major molecular initiating event (Jeong et al., 2017). : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. Surgical masks provide different levels of protection based on the effectiveness of the filtering. Plastic pollution is one of the greatest environmental challenges, with known adverse ecological, economic and human health effects (De-la-Torre et al., 2021). 8600 Rockville Pike There is a need to find the right balance between protecting domestic firms from opportunistic acquisition during the crisis and avoiding barriers that will jeopardize future investment in the recovery phase. 50(3), pp. 16. Rodrigues J.P., Duarte A.C., Santos-Echeanda J., Rocha-Santos T. Significance of interactions between microplastics and POPs in the marine environment: a critical overview. Microplastic fiber up- take, ingestion, and egestion rates in the blue mussel (. However, intense use and mismanagement of COVID-19 waste are imposing a severe environmental challenge. Mortality of a juvenile Magellanic penguin ( Spheniscus magellanicus , Spheniscidae ) associated with the ingestion of a PFF-2 protective mask during the Covid-19 pandemic. Prata J.C., Silva A., Walker T.R., Duarte A.C., Rocha-Santos T.A.P. Re-usable masks may still be one of the solutions to address the current shortage. Since no country can meet the increase in the demand for masks alone, trade is essential. The ingestion of microfibres (although at concentrations relatively higher than the ones encountered in the field) is often related to behavioural alterations (e.g., burrowing activity of the annelids; or sink activity of crustaceans), decreased feeding activity (as observed in bivalves and crabs), reduced growth/body mass (particularly in crustaceans), increased deformities/damages (as in fish), reduced reproductive output and embryonic development (as for crabs), induced inflammatory processes (in anemone), oxidative stress (in annelids and shredders) (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020) (Table 1). Das O., Neisiany R.E., Capezza A.J., Hedenqvist M.S., Frsth M., Xu Q., Jiang L., Ji D., Ramakrishna S. The need for fully bio-based facemasks to counter coronavirus outbreaks: a perspective. While some EU countries producing masks have enacted export bans, an EU-wide regulation was adopted on 15March 2020 introducing export authorisations. Terrestrial organisms also proved to ingest microfibres, such as the soil-dwelling (detritivore), annelids (Lumbricus terrestris) and the shredder snails (Achatina fulica) (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020) (Table 2 Most of the potential new manufacturers are currently held back by the shortage in PP non-woven fabric.10. The number of disposable face masks in rivers and beaches seems considerably higher than in any other place, acting as highways and sinks, respectively. The smooth operation of transportation infrastructure and logistics, especially air cargo, is critical to support the face masks value chain during the crisis. The presence of such items in bird nests can later result in the entanglement or ingesting by the chicks (or the parents), compromising nutritional requirements and development (Tavares et al., 2016). Recent publications reported the abundance of COVID-19-related litter in several environments, wildlife interaction with such items, and the contaminants that can be released from such protective equipment that has the potential to induce ecotoxicological effects. Yet a crisis may be long and stocks insufficient, so contingency plans and strategies to increase supply during crises will still be necessary. But some countries do not have the manufacturing capacity, the specialised machines nor, more importantly, access to inputs. For instance, Bisphenol A, used in polycarbonate plastics (i.e., polypropylene, polyethylene) as a stabiliser and antioxidant, can leach from plastics and induce toxicity under low concentrations as an endocrine disruptor (i.e., by mimicking hormones) (Nam et al., 2010). covering pre-existing commercial relationships). Incorrect disposal of disposable face masks has been reported worldwide, in urbanised areas (streets, gardens, parks), natural reserves, beaches, and even high mountains (e.g., Ammendolia et al., 2021; Neto et al., 2021; Prata et al., 2020); intensifying plastic pollution. Some countries have facilitated trade in masks and other protective equipment by removing tariffs or by suspending licensing and certification requirements. Feeding in urban refuse dumps: ingestion of plastic objects by the white stork (. Looking ahead, it would be excessively costly for every country to develop production capacity that matches crisis demand and encompasses the whole value chain. ). The minimum is three layers: an inner layer in contact with the mouth that can absorb moisture (generally white), a filter layer made of melt-blown electret non-woven material (as described above) and an outer layer protecting against liquid splashes (blue, to be distinguished from the inner layer). pp. China may have imported up to 2 billion masks during the COVID-19 crisis. The main producer of masks in France, Kolmi-Hopen, is also an affiliate of Medicom (Canada). Research 2021 AB -, 2173642. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. In Kenya, beaches presented 10 times more disposable masks than in the streets (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1). Assuming that only around one third of healthcare workers need a mask (accounting for the fact that not all countries are affected at the same time, and not all health workers are in contact with COVID-19 patients), and that each health worker uses on average two masks per day, global demand for surgical masks would be around 28million per day. Recreational beaches presented the highest number of items (73%), followed by surfing (24.6%), fishing and inaccessible beaches (< 1%). : visualisation, writing - original draft, writing - review and editing. The export authorisation was first for all personal protective equipment and narrowed down to protective masks on 14April 2020 (https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index.cfm?id=2132). It analyses the causes of the current shortage of these key medical supplies needed to prevent the spread of coronavirus, and reviews some short-term and long-term policy options, with a focus on the role of trade and investment policy. Nose strips are added in order to bend the mask around the nose bridge, made from metal (aluminium, galvanised iron or steel). Polypropylene (PP) is one of the most commonly produced plastics in the world and, as a polymer derived from oil, can be easily supplied (although dependent on oil prices and access to oil). 1306 items, 31% representing face masks. Interactions with COVID-19 litter, particularly masks (and, to a lesser extent, latex gloves and disposable wipes), have been reported by academics, ordinary citizens, and wildlife stakeholders, for several aquatic and terrestrial species (Hiemstra et al., 2021). Export restrictions can also create uncertainty that impacts firms investment strategies. While the most efficient level 2 surgical masks can be reserved for healthcare workers (with N95 respirators for the most exposed of them), lower grades of masks could be used in other sectors or re-usable washable masks (as already recommended by some governments and health authorities). Wang Z., An C., Chen X., Lee K., Zhang B., Feng Q. Optical Bluetooth Transmitter For Tv, Shein Wife Life Sweatshirt, Mac Powerpoint Equivalent, Is Mizani Good For Curly Hair, Best Desk With Cable Management, Reach Advanced Design Toothbrush Medium, Sublue Underwater Scooter Costco,

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